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Takrur

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Takrur
CapitalTumbere Jiinge (Dya'ogo, Manna dynasties), Taaga (Laam Taga), Hoorewendu (Laam Termess)
Common languagesSerer, Fula, Arabic
Religion
Islam (Official)
Serer religion[1]
Demonym(s)Takruri, Takarir
GovernmentMonarchy
• 1030s
War Jabi
Historical eraMiddle Ages
 Succeeded by
Jolof Empire
Denianke Kingdom
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Takrur, Tekrur or Tekrour (c. 500 – c. 1456) was a state based in the Senegal River valley in modern day Mauritania and Northern Senegal which was at its height in the 10th and 11th centuries, roughly parallel to the Ghana Empire. It lasted in some form into the 18th century.

History

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Origin

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There are a number of conflicting theories about the deep past of the Senegal river valley, where the Kingdom of Takrur would take root. The formation of the state may have taken place as an influx of Fulani from the east settled in the Senegal valley.[2][3][4] John Donnelly Fage suggests that Takrur was formed through the interaction of Berbers from the Sahara and "Negro agricultural peoples" who were "essentially Serer".[5] The outsiders may, however, have been Soninke rather than Berber, and the native population may have already spoken Fula.[6] Regardless, the region has been an ethnic melting pot from the earliest traceable periods up to the present, although Fula have come to dominate in more recent centuries.[7][8][9]

The founding dynasty was called Dya'ogo. Traditional historians disagree on their origin and ethnic background (assuming a relationship can be drawn at all with ethnic labels as understood today).[10] They were blacksmith-kings, and supposedly introduced iron-working and ore extraction to the region.[11]

Manna Dynasty

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A Soninke clan under Mamadu Sumaare, originally from Wagadu, conquered Takrur in the 9th or 10th century, establishing the Manna dynasty and gradually melding into the local culture. They may have been Nyakhates from Diarra, Soumares from Guidimakha, or Jaabis.[12][13][6]

Takrur was first mentioned in Arab sources in the 10th century.[14] In 1035 king War Jabi introduced Sharia law, becoming the first ruler to officially adopt Islamic orthodoxy in the Sahel.[15] In 1056 his son Laba fought alongside Yahya ibn Umar al-Lamtuni at the battle of Tabfarilla.[16] 4000 cavalrymen from Takrur were critical to the Almoravid victory at the 1086 Battle of Sagrajas in Al-Andalus which was crucial to halting the Reconquista.[17][18] This alliance was maintained for most of the next 200 years.[19]

During this period Takrur held a dominant position in regional trade, controlling a series of trading posts and cities linking the salt mines of Awlil on the coast north of the mouth of the Senegal to the interior.[20][17] In the 12th century, Silla, allied with Takrur, went to war against Wagadu.[21] Its decline meant that Takrur was able to exert more control over the trade routes moving gold from Bambouk to desert-side markets.[22]

Serer Exodus

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See also: Serer history

When Islam and Sharia was introduced to the Kingdom by the Manna, it led to the persecution of local animists.[23][24] The lamanic class, whose role also included the safeguarding of traditional Serer spirituality, are believed to have been at the forefront of resisting Islamization, partly to preserve their religion, but also their power and wealth as landowners.[25] It was common for early Arab writers such as Al Bakri to refer to "non-believers" of Islam in their works as lamlam, lemlem, or damdam which may be a corruption of the Serer title lamaan.[23][26] During the 13th century, a civil war broke out. Rather than convert, the Serer migrated southwest first to the Ferlo and then to Siin and Saloum.[15][27] This was the process by which a distinct 'Serer' identity first emerged, separate from the rest of the Takruri population.[28]

Vassalage and Decline

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The 13th century was a period of political crisis in Takrur. The last Manna king, Cengaan Sumaare, is remembered as a bloodthirsty tyrant who was overthrown by his own people.[29] The western parts of the kingdom became independent.[30] Around 1286, the Mali Empire conquered Takrur and put it under a military dictatorship ruled by farba (governors), remembered locally as the Tonjon dynasty.[31][32] Mali's power in the region diminished in the 14th century, however, and the Fula Lam Termess and Lam Taaga dynasties were able to take power.[33] The region may also have been controlled by the Kingdom of Diarra.[34]

Takrur was conquered by the Jolof emperor Tyukuli N'Diklam in the 15th century, who split the region between multiple farba.[35][31] By 1506, however, the Burba's authority was weakening, and the farba fell to fighting amongst themselves.[36] Koli Tengella, a Fula warlord native to Takrur but coming from Futa Jallon, conquered the area in 1521 and set up the Denanke dynasty. This would last until 1776 when the Fouta Revolution, led by Muslim clerics, took over the kingdom and the house of Denanke was brought down.[37]

Timeline

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Dates are approximate and often disputed by different sources or authors.

Time Events
6-9th centuries Dya-ogo dynasty
9-11th centuries Soninke Manna dynasty
1030s Takrur converted to Islam under War Jabi
1086 Battle of Sagrajas
c. 1286 Mali conquest of Takrur
1456-1506 Jolof rule of Takrur
1506-1526 Civil war between farbas
1520-1 Invasion by Koli Tenguella
1526 Koli Tenguella establishes firm control over Takrur, founds the Denanke Kingdom

Economy

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Takrur was a trading centre, where gold from the Bambuk region,[38]: 44  salt from the Awlil,[39] and Sahel grain were exchanged for wool, copper, beads, and jewelry.[14] The kingdom's cotton cloth was among its most renowned exports.[14]

Territory

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At the height of its power, Takrur controlled the north bank of the Senegal as far as the Tagant plateau and Aleg.[11] The Gorgol river valley was the heartland of the kingdom, and was the site of the Dya'ogo capital Tumbere Jiinge.[40] They also controlled, or at least had significant influence over, the area downstream that would become Waalo.[41]

Takrur as a toponym

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Takruri was a term, like Bilad el-Sudan, that was used to refer to all people of West African ancestry,[42] and is still in use as such in the Middle East, with some corruption, as in Takruni, pl. Takarna تكروني in Saudi Arabia, and in Ethiopia and Eritrea, in the form Tukrir. The district of Bulaq Al-Dakrur بولاق الدكرور in Cairo is named after an ascetic from West Africa. In the Middle East Toucouleurs are still referred to as Tukrir to this day.[43]

Takrur was the term used by the region's inhabitants up until the 15th century. During the 16th and 17th centuries, however, it was gradually replaced by Futa Toro.[34]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ Charles Becker et Victor Martin, « Rites de sépultures préislamiques au Sénégal et vestiges protohistoriques », Archives Suisses d'Anthropologie Générale, Imprimerie du Journal de Genève, Genève, 1982, tome 46, no 2, p. 261-293
  2. ^ Hrbek, I. (1992). General History of Africa volume 3: Africa from the 7th to the 11th Century: Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century v. 3 (Unesco General History of Africa (abridged)). James Carey. p. 67. ISBN 978-0852550939.
  3. ^ Creevey, Lucy (August 1996). "Islam, Women and the Role of the State in Senegal". Journal of Religion in Africa. 26 (3): 268–307. doi:10.1163/157006696x00299. JSTOR 1581646.
  4. ^ Kane 2004, p. 56.
  5. ^ Fage, John Donnelly (1997). "Upper and Lower Guinea". In Roland Oliver (ed.). The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521209816.
  6. ^ a b Brooks 1985, p. 36.
  7. ^ Kane 2004, p. 55.
  8. ^ Thiaw 2013, p. 96.
  9. ^ Ba 2017, p. 135.
  10. ^ Ba 2017, p. 133.
  11. ^ a b Kane 2004, p. 27.
  12. ^ Ba 2017, p. 136.
  13. ^ Kane 2004, p. 64.
  14. ^ a b c Davis, R. Hunt (ed.). Encyclopedia Of African History And Culture, Vol. 2 (E-book ed.). The Learning Source. p. 129. Retrieved 18 May 2023.
  15. ^ a b Colvin, Lucie Gallistel, Historical dictionary of Senegal, Scare Crow Press Inc. (1981), p. 18, ISBN 0-8108-1369-6
  16. ^ Kane 2004, p. 65.
  17. ^ a b Ba 2017, p. 140.
  18. ^ Cuoq, Joseph, ed. (1985). Recueil des sources arabes concernant l'Afrique occidentale du VIIIeme au XVIeme siècle (Bilād Al-Sūdān) (in French). Paris: Éditions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. p. 197. Retrieved 30 September 2024.
  19. ^ Ba 2017, p. 144.
  20. ^ Gomez, Michael (2018). African dominion : a new history of empire in early and medieval West Africa. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 37. ISBN 9780691177427.
  21. ^ Ba 2017, p. 103.
  22. ^ Brooks 1985, p. 111.
  23. ^ a b Chavane, Bruno A., "Villages de l’ancien Tekrour", Vol. 2, Hommes et sociétés. Archéologies africaines, KARTHALA Editions (1985), p. 38, ISBN 2-86537-143-3
  24. ^ Mwakikagile, Godfrey, "Ethnic Diversity and Integration in The Gambia: The Land, The People and The Culture," (2010), p. 11, ISBN 9987-9322-2-3
  25. ^ Thiaw 2013, p. 107.
  26. ^ Diop, Abdoulaye Bara, "Le tenure foncière en milieu rural Wolof (Sénégal): Historique et actualité." Notes Africaines, no. 118, (April 1968), IFAN, Dakar, pp. 48–52
  27. ^ Kane 2004, p. 76.
  28. ^ Thiaw 2013, p. 97.
  29. ^ Kane 2004, p. 64–6.
  30. ^ Ba 2017, p. 147.
  31. ^ a b Kane 2004, p. 72.
  32. ^ Ba 2017, p. 148.
  33. ^ Ba 2017, p. 124.
  34. ^ a b Boulegue 2013, p. 29.
  35. ^ Leyti, Oumar Ndiaye. Le Djoloff et ses Bourba. Nouvelles Editions Africaines, 1981. ISBN 2-7236-0817-4
  36. ^ Kane 2004, p. 67.
  37. ^ Ogot, Bethwell A. General history of Africa: Africa from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century. University of California Press, 1999, ISBN 0-520-06700-2, p 146 [1]
  38. ^ Levtzion, Nehemia (1973). Ancient Ghana and Mali. New York: Methuen & Co Ltd. ISBN 0841904316.
  39. ^ Shillington, Kevin (2012). History of Africa. London: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 94. ISBN 9780230308473.
  40. ^ Kane 2004, p. 38.
  41. ^ Boulegue 2013, p. 39.
  42. ^ 'Umar Al-Naqar (1969). "Takrur the History of a Name". The Journal of African History. 10 (3): 365–374. doi:10.1017/s002185370003632x. JSTOR 179671.
  43. ^ Smidt 2010, p. 998.

Sources

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  • Ba, Abdourahmane (2017). "Chapitre 1, Le Takrur Historique Et l'Héritage Du Fuuta Tooro". In Villasante Cervello, Mariella; Taylor, Raymond (eds.). Histoire et politique dans la vallée du fleuve Sénégal: Mauritanie. Hiérarchies, échanges, colonisation et violences politiques, VIIIe-XXIe siècle (in French). Harmattan. pp. 96–161.
  • Boulegue, Jean (2013). Les royaumes wolof dans l'espace sénégambien (XIIIe-XVIIIe siècle) (in French). Paris: Karthala Editions.
  • Brooks, George E. (August 1985). "Western African to c. 1860 A.D.: a Provisional Historical Schema based on Climate Periods". Indiana University African Studies Program.
  • Kane, Oumar (2004). La première hégémonie peule. Le Fuuta Tooro de Koli Teηella à Almaami Abdul. Paris: Karthala. Retrieved 12 July 2023.
  • Thiaw, Ibrahima (2013). "From the Senegal River to Siin: The Archaeology of Sereer Migrations in North-Western Senegambia.". In Bosma, Ulbe; Kessler, Gijs; Lucassen, Leo (eds.). Migration and Membership Regimes in Global and Historical Perspective: An Introduction Studies in Global Migration History. Brill. ISBN 9004241833.
  • Smidt, Wolbert (2010). "Tukrir". In Siegbert Uhlig, Alessandro Bausi (ed.). Encyclopedia Aethiopica. Vol. 4. Harrassowitz. pp. 998–1000. ISBN 9783447062466.

Further reading

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  • J. F. Ade Ajayi, Michael Crowder (eds.). History of West Africa. Columbia University (1972) ISBN 0-231-03628-0
  • J. Hunwick. "Takrur", Encyclopaedia of Islam, Leiden 2000, X, 142–3.
  • Mary Antin, Nehemia Levtzion. Medieval West Africa Before 1400: Ghana, Takrur, Gao (Songhay) and Mali. Translated by Nehemia Levtzion. J. F. Hopkins: Contributor. Markus Wiener Publishing, New Jersey (1998). ISBN 1-55876-165-9
  • J. D. Fage (ed.). The Cambridge History of Africa, vol. II, Cambridge University Press (1978), 675–7.
  • McIntosh, Roderick J.; McIntosh, Susan Keech; Bocoum, Hamady (2016). The Search for Takrur: Archaeological Excavations and Reconnaissance Along the Middle Senegal Valley. The Yale Peabody Museum.
  • H. T. Norris. "The Wind of Change in the Western Sahara". The Geographical Journal, Vol. 130, No. 1 (Mar., 1964), pp. 1–14
  • D.W. Phillipson. African Archaeology, Cambridge University Press (Revised Edition 2005). ISBN 978-0-521-83236-6
  • Leyti, Oumar Ndiaye. Le Djoloff et ses Bourba. Nouvelles Editions Africaines, 1981. ISBN 2-7236-0817-4
  • Ogot, Bethwell A. General history of Africa: Africa from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century. University of California Press, 1999, ISBN 0-520-06700-2, p 146.
  • Oliver, Roland. The Cambridge history of Africa: From c. 1600 to c. 1790. Cambridge University Press, 1982. ISBN 0-521-20981-1, p484
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